Stalinism and alcoholism in the Soviet Union (9)
The crisis and waning of the campaign
| “Give us back the good old Brezhnev days!” D. Oboznenko’s 1989 poster satirises nostalgia for the Brezhnev era through the image of alcohol. |
The CPSU Central Committee’s statement issued in June 1987 was significant in this respect. The statement did not declare that the goal of “making sobriety the norm of life” had been abandoned; on the contrary, it proclaimed that the campaign would continue with determination. Yet the same text had to acknowledge that the policy was not being implemented “everywhere with the necessary perseverance, vigour and consistency”; that some party and state officials had lost interest in the campaign; and even that some were themselves given to drinking. More importantly, it noted that there had been insufficient understanding of the fact that drunkenness and alcoholism could not be eradicated through “noisy, short-term campaigns”.
The problems did not, as the Central Committee’s statement implied, stem simply from lax implementation. The basic logic of the campaign rested on detaching the alcohol problem from its social roots and attempting to solve it through administrative prohibitions, price increases, penalties and moralistic propaganda. Official channels for the sale of alcohol had been narrowed, prices had been raised, and sales hours and outlets restricted. Yet these measures did not eliminate the demand for alcohol; they drove it into informal, unregulated and often far more dangerous channels.
One of the gravest consequences of this impasse was the spread of samogon production and the use of toxic alcohol surrogates. As access to alcohol through official channels became more difficult, people turned to homemade illicit spirits, cheap colognes, lotions, perfumes, solvents, methanol, antifreeze and other chemicals.
This was also the key point that called the campaign’s official narrative of success into question. Official alcohol sales may indeed have fallen; yet this decline exaggerated the extent to which actual alcohol consumption had decreased. This contradiction is clearly visible in the graph below:
Official alcohol sales and estimated samogon production in Russia, 1980–1992
Litres of pure alcohol per capita per year
Samogon was already a deeply rooted phenomenon in Soviet society; particularly in rural areas, it served as a means of payment for small services, a source of entertainment and consolation, and part of the everyday informal exchange relations of daily life. Preparing a bottle of homemade spirits in return for tasks such as carrying firewood, doing garden work or carrying out house repairs was common practice in many places. For this reason, the campaign was confronting not only illicit alcohol production, but also a broader reality in Soviet society: one bound up with shortages, service bottlenecks, the inadequacy of official distribution channels and the networks of the informal economy.
The rapid expansion of illicit alcohol production also created serious problems with sugar supplies. In 1986 and 1987, sugar sales surged dramatically; the increase recorded over those two years matched the total rise seen over the entire decade from 1970 to 1980. Although the Soviet Union was one of the world’s leading sugar producers, the demand for raw materials generated by samogon production grew so large that, by 1987, roughly one-tenth of the country’s sugar output was estimated to have been used in illicit alcohol production. Fruit thefts likewise increased as homemade wine production became more widespread.
| “Three hundred glasses of tea. The sugar - separately!” Krokodil, no. 15, 1988. |
The crisis of the campaign also made itself felt in the sphere of propaganda. The Party apparatus still regarded the media as one of the campaign’s principal instruments of mobilisation. In the last two months of 1986, more than a hundred articles on the subject were published in the central press, and there were more than fifty television broadcasts. Yet, according to the Secretariat of the Central Committee, the media were not covering the campaign in a sufficiently systematic, creative or effective manner. Journalists were slow to respond to the rise in samogon production and to the shift of alcohol consumption into the home; ministries that were delaying the transition to the production of non-alcoholic products often escaped criticism altogether. By 1988, the number of articles on the alcohol problem had fallen to less than half the 1985 level, and those that were published had become more superficial. In other words, the campaign’s capacity for ideological mobilisation was also losing its force.
Social discontent was also reflected in public opinion surveys. Soviet opinion research, which began to be conducted more regularly from 1987 onwards, showed that a significant section of the population was dissatisfied with the way the campaign was being implemented and believed that the expected results had not been achieved. This discontent increasingly came to be directed at Gorbachev personally. In his memoirs, Gorbachev acknowledges that people had grown weary of waiting in queues for hours and of being unable to obtain vodka or wine even for a special occasion, and that their anger was directed above all at the General Secretary, who was “held responsible for everything”. The nickname given to him - “the Mineral Water Secretary” - became one of the symbols of this social backlash.
The All-Union Voluntary Society for the Struggle for Sobriety, one of the most important instruments of the campaign’s bureaucratic organisation, was likewise plunged into crisis during this period. Having reached 450,000 branches shortly after its establishment and operating with thousands of local offices and a full-time staff of 6,500, this vast organisation had turned into an expensive bureaucratic apparatus whose membership dues were insufficient to cover its expenditure, with its deficits funded from the central state budget. Moreover, the Society’s own practice openly contradicted its professed commitment to “sobriety”: according to Ogonyok magazine, at least a third of its members drank alcohol, some branch heads ended up in sobering-up stations, and workers were effectively forced to attend meetings at their factories. Thus the image of “voluntary social mobilisation” was steadily losing credibility.
| “Sobriety Society, District Branch.” Krokodil, no. 35, 1988. |
In the end, with a new decision taken by the Central Committee in October 1988, this form of combating alcoholism was effectively brought to an end. This did not mean that all the measures introduced under the campaign disappeared at once; some restrictions, high prices and delayed adjustments in production continued for some time. Yet the political centre of gravity had shifted. Confronted with a deepening economic crisis, the Gorbachev leadership was now turning towards accelerating perestroika, expanding enterprise autonomy, giving greater scope to profit criteria, contractual relations and market mechanisms. The anti-alcohol campaign, however, was allowed to fade away in an entirely bureaucratic manner - without a clear accounting of its results, and without being made the subject of a democratic debate before society.
As the campaign faded, it was increasingly replaced by a new line of reform more openly aimed at disciplining the working class through market discipline. Nikolai Shmelev, one of Gorbachev’s advisers, encapsulated the meaning of this shift when, in 1989, he presented the threat of losing one’s job as the most effective remedy “against laziness, drunkenness and irresponsibility”.
Thus, the fading of the anti-alcohol campaign came to signify not merely the end of an unsuccessful public health policy; it also became a telling indication of the Stalinist bureaucracy’s shift from administrative coercion and moralistic mobilisation towards market discipline and capitalist restoration.
To be continued