Queue etiquette in Stalinist Albania
The scarcity and poor quality of consumer goods, long queues and the black market - at times even waves of hunger - have been defining features of Stalinist regimes in all their variants, both throughout the twentieth century and into the first quarter of the twenty-first. [*]
In Albania, however, the scarcity of consumer goods was far more severe than in other Stalinist regimes. Queues and difficulties in accessing consumer goods were, of course, common features of Stalinist systems. Yet it would not be accurate to claim that this always and everywhere amounted to a chronic, generalised shortage. For example, after the Second World War, the Soviet Union and the countries of Eastern Europe possessed a certain international division of labour and a trade network within the framework of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon), despite its inherent limitations. As a result, shortages in these countries were often confined to particular sectors or periods, rather than becoming a chronic condition of deprivation that continuously enveloped the system as a whole.
| Urban public transport in Albania (1980) |
In Albania, the range of consumer goods in short supply was remarkably wide; so much so that even an empty Coca-Cola can could be treated as an object of prestige. Families who managed to obtain a well-preserved empty Coca-Cola can would often display this “rare” item prominently in their homes, typically placing a flower inside it as if it were a precious vase. [**] Consequently, there was intense competition among the population for access to consumer goods.
| Lea Ypi (2022) |
Yet the relentless struggle to obtain consumer goods did not merely give rise to sharp competition among the population. Cooperation and solidarity were also remarkably strong. For example, in the queues for scarce goods - which extended into virtually every sphere of life - it was a widespread and accepted practice to mark one’s place by leaving an object behind. There also existed a network of solidarity operating outside state structures, based on reciprocal practices of lending and borrowing. Circumventing official rules - for instance by watching foreign television broadcasts - was likewise common, and these practices coexisted with an outward appearance of conformity.
In the following passage, Ypi vividly describes how people in Albania sought to ease the burden of seemingly endless queues through solidarity, developing a kind of “queue etiquette” with its own unwritten rules:
There was always a queue. It always formed before the distribution lorry arrived. You were always expected to join, unless you had befriended the shopkeeper. That was the general rule. But there were also loopholes. Anyone was allowed to leave the queue so long as they found an appropriate object to replace them during their absence. It could be an old shopping bag, a can, a brick, or a stone. Then there was another rule, eagerly endorsed and promptly enforced: namely, that once the supplies arrived, the object left to act as your representative immediately lost its representative function. It did not matter if you had left a bag, can, brick, or stone in your place. The bag was just a bag; it could no longer be you.
Queues divided between those in which nothing happened and those in which there was always something going on. In the first case, upholding social order could be delegated to objects. In the second case, queues were lively, noisy, and boisterous; everyone had to be present and all limbs were in motion as people tried to catch sight of the counter, see how much was left of what had just arrived, and as the shopkeeper looked around for any friends in the queue they might need to prioritise.
During part of my training to navigate the queue system, I once asked why we had to leave a stone in the cheese queue so we could join the kerosene queue to leave a can there, since nothing was happening in either of them. This was when I learned that queues could go on for an entire day, and sometimes the night, or several nights, and it was essential to let shopping bags, kerosene containers, or appropriately sized stones take on some of the representative functions that would otherwise have to burden their owners. Objects in the queue were regularly monitored, and participants took turns to ensure that the representative bags, cans, or stones were not inadvertently removed or replaced by unauthorised items. In the very rare cases in which the system broke down, fights erupted and queues turned nasty, brutish, and long. People fought bitterly over stones that looked similar, or net bags that had been cheekily replaced with cloth sacks, or kerosene cans that had unexpectedly doubled in size.
Behaving respectfully in the queue or joining forces to uphold queuing standards could mark the beginning of lasting friendships. A neighbour you met in the queue or a friend you made while sharing supervisory duties would soon become someone to whom you turned in all kinds of adversity: if an elderly person in your household was unexpectedly ill and you needed child care, or if you discovered you had run out of sugar in the middle of making a birthday cake, or if you needed someone with whom to swap food vouchers, since you might have built up a stock of some items but run out of others. We relied on friends and neighbours for everything. Whenever the need arose, we simply knocked on their door, regardless of the time of day. If they did not have what we were looking for or if they could not help with whatever we needed, they offered substitutions or recommended another family who might be able to help. (Lea Ypi, Free: Coming of Age at the End of History, W.W. Norton & Company, 2023, California, pp. 45-46)
Albania (1990)
Lea Ypi’s book deserves to be read as one of the rare testimonies that offers an insightful, insider account of the everyday workings of the Stalinist system in Albania, its deep contradictions, and the adaptive practices that people gradually developed in order to cope with them.
[*] Similar problems can still be observed today in the Stalinist regimes of Cuba and North Korea. Of course, the mass famines experienced in both countries over the past quarter century are directly linked to the external blockades imposed by imperialist states. By contrast, China and Vietnam constitute a distinct group: countries in which ruling Stalinist parties have retained political dominance, while the economic structure has largely taken on a capitalist character.
[**] See Chapter Five, “Coca-Cola Cans”, pp. 45-54.
Also see: Enver Hoxha’s theatre of power: Gün Zileli's testimony